Health Care System and Policies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Health Care System and Policies - Research Paper Example Below are significant highlights of healthcare policies in America that are sequenced in a timeline: a. 1798 – Legislatures passed the act for the establishment of federal network of hospitals to serve the sick and disabled seaman or merchant seaman. This is considered as the foundation of the current US Public Health Service (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); b. 1862 – Former President Abraham Lincoln appointed Charles M. Wetherill, a chemist, to head the Department of Agriculture and established the Bureau of Chemistry which became the foundation of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); c. 1871 - US government created the office of Surgeon General (formerly known as Supervising Surgeon) for the Marine Hospital Service (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); d. 1878 – Legislator passed the National Quarantine Act to focus on quarantine functions (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); e. 1887- The federal government established and opened a one-room laboratory at Staten Island tasked to conduct extensive study on diseases and inspired the creation of National Institute of Health (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); f. ... 1906 – The Pure Food and Drugs Act was legislated to regulate the safety of medicines made and sold by pharmaceutical industry (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); i. 1912 – Former President Theodore Roosevelt wanted the establishment of Children’s Bureau to deal with issues on child exploitation (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); j. 1921 – The federal government created the Bureau of India Affairs Health Division which became the foundation in the creation of Indian Health Service (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); k. 1930 - The government institutionalized the National Institutes of Health as an independent office from Public Health Service’s Hygienic Laboratory (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); l. 1935 – Legislators passed the Social Security Act (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); m. 1938 – The Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic law was legislated (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); n. 1939 - Federal pr ogram and activities on health, education and health insurance were consolidated when Federal Security Agency was established (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); o. 1946 - The government institutionalized the Communicable Disease Center which became responsible on the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (US National Library of Medicine, 2012); p. 1953 – Under the administration of former President Eisenshower, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare was established in 1953. Anent to its operational specialization, the Department of Education Organization Act was legislated to make the office totally independent. DHEW was renamed as Department of Health and Human Services officially in May 4, 1980 (US

Gastrointestinal Cancer Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Gastrointestinal Cancer - Term Paper Example Helicobacter pylori are infective organisms which have been linked with the gastric cancer. Colorectal cancer is associated with genetic mutations as well low fibre diets and diets which lack essential vitamins. Gastrointestinal Cancer Cancer is uncontrolled and abnormal growth of a tissue destroying the adjacent tissues also. Sometimes the cancer metastasize which means the spread of cancerous cells from one part of the body to other part of the body through blood or lymph fluid. These properties of cancer make it more dangerous than benign tumours because benign tumours do not attack the nearby tissue and thus do not destroy them and benign tumours do not metastasize. Cancer cells have self sufficiency in growth, self replicative, insensitive to antigrowth signals and avoid apoptosis. Gastrointestinal system is a complex system which breaks and digests the ingested food mechanically and with the help of enzymes. Cancer can occur in gastrointestinal system too like esophageal cancer , gastric cancer, liver cancer, gall bladder cancer, pancreatic cancer, colon cancer and anal cancer. Esophageal cancer is condition in which the cells of esophagus start reproducing abnormally in uncontrolled way which destroys the esophagus. The cancer in esophagus mostly occurs in epithelial cells which lines the surface of esophagus. There are two types of esophageal cancer: squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. The squamous cell carcinoma mostly occurs in those populations which excessively consume alcohol, tobacco and hot tea. Adenocarcinoma is that cancer of esophagus which occurs in higher socioeconomic class, or in population with obesity and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Generally squamous cell carcinoma occurs due to the irritation in esophageal squamous epithelium. The risk factors for the development of squamous cell carcinoma are tobacco, alcohol, high starch and low fibres diet, achalasia and a few more. Excessive tobacco use is can cause esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. If a person smoke cigarette or use smokeless tobacco products the effect of tobacco causing squamous cell carcinoma remain the same. Chronic alcohol use is also cause of development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. The quitting of use of tobacco and alcohol decrease the risk of development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Unbalance diet is also increase the risk of development of squamous cell carcinoma. Diet rich in starch and having low quantity of fibres aid in development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma occurs in patient with previous achalasia. Chronic irritants of the esophagus, Plummer-vinson syndrome increase the risk of squamous cell carcinoma. Adenocarcinoma occurs in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease and Barrette’s disease history. Barrette’s disease is the metaplasia of epithelial cells of esophagus. Metaplasia is the reversible change of cells which are replaced by another type of adult cells. In Barrette’s disease normal stratified squamous epithelium of distal esophagus is replaced by coloumnar epithelium containing goblet cells. The development of adenocarcinoma from Barrette’s esophagus is a long process which takes years to occur. The degree at which change in the cells occurs is responsible for development of

Business formation and purpose Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business formation and purpose - Essay Example BBC Worldwide has a number of other commercial ventures. Profits from these activities are returned to the BBC for investment in new programming and services (BBC, No Date). In the year 1922 by the public opinion, as well as the spectacular growth and popularity of radio in the United States, had attracted more public pressure on the authorities to deny a full service any longer. After five months of deliberation a company to be known as the British Broadcasting Company was to set up eight stations in major cities around the country. Like this the BBC was born. on November 14th 1922, The British Broadcasting Company started daily transmissions by that time more than one million ten-shilling (50p) authorization had been announced. In 1927 the company was restructured as a public corporation -the BBC which is known today- by its founding father, John (later Lord) Reith, but by this time an even newer technology was being developed -television. In 1926 Baird enlisted the aid of Selfridges in London to put on public demonstrations of his equipment., the BBCs official line was that Bairds pictures were well below standard and that they had too little potential for improvement (BBC, No Date). By 1932 the BBC started regular experimental broadcasting. They offered Baird a studio in their newly acquired premises in Portland Place, Britains first dedicated television studio, was housed in the basement of Broadcasting House, and it was from here that Baird continued to experiment and refine the new medium. Competition came from the Electronic and Music Industries (EMI), based in Hayes, Middlesex, where they had been working with the Marconi Company on developing a high definition system. In May of 1934 the British government appointed a committee for setting up a television service followed by the Seldom Report where The BBC was to be

Response to Rereading America Essay Example for Free

Response to Rereading America Essay The introduction to the text, Rereading America, challenges us to look beyond the common misconceptions of the â€Å"myth† the American dream and to think critically. As far as what I think it means to be an American citizen, there are many things to consider. I believe that to be an American can imply freedom, security, and prosperity to some. To others however, it can mean a struggle to survive. The ideal American dream, no matter your interpretation of the idea, seems simply out of reach for most. My idea of what it means to be an American is that you are willing to do work. You are not just waiting for things to simply be handed to you on a silver platter. To me, it also means that you can become successful and accomplish the goals you set your mind to. Even though it is not a complete plan to become successful without having to deal with obstacles, I understand the value of hard work. Being an American for me is saying that I can complete any tasks in my future as long as I stay focused and take it step by step. Without hard work in college I will not be as successful in the work place as I would like to be. I understand that nothing will simply be given to me, but that I have to work hard and earn the things I desire. As far as college goes I will have to maintain a certain grade point average to be accepted in the nursing program. This will require a large amount of effort and I will need to acquire the need to continue on my journey of education, which will help me prepare for the real world. Being an American for me means I am willing to strive to meet the requirements or standards for a college student and a person in the work place. With hard work I will eventually achieve success.

Essay --

Nicole Ivgui Criminology Ms. Kovat December 13th, 2013 Is Solitary Confinement Unconstitutional? Solitary Confinement is the isolation of a prisoner in a separate cell as a punishment. Aside from the death penalty, confinement is the most extreme punishment that a prisoner can be sentenced to. Prisoners deserve to maintain their human rights while incarcerated just as much as any ordinary citizen in the United States. Solitary confinement is unconstitutional because it violates the fundamental rights of inmates by physically and socially isolating them, which potentially inflicts severe long-term damage on adolescents. The Center for Constitutional Rights (CCR) has deemed solitary confinement as an unconstitutional form of punishment. It expresses that solitary confinement should be classified as torture because it inflicts potential physical and mental damage on inmates. Being confined to a cell for over 22 hours a day with absolutely no human contact is an inhumane practice and cannot be beneficial enough to overcome the consequences that an inmate must face upon release. Solitary confinement clearly violates the Eighth Amendment, which prohibits â€Å"cruel and unusual punishment.† Solitary confinement is the epitome of torture. Inmates often recall not being able to distinguish the time they spend in confinement; hours feel like days, and days feel like months. Certain prisons use solitary confinement differently than others. The Pelican Bay Security Housing Unit (SHU) is known as the â€Å"most restrictive prison in California.† It is one of the harshest â€Å"super-maximumâ €  prisons in the country, meaning that inmates may be subjected to solitary confinement for a set amount of time or an indefinite duration. This is known as the ‘supe... ...t in solitary confinement because they cannot handle the isolation. When a human being is confined to a small, windowless room in complete isolation from other human beings, the results can only be negative. Communication is key to survival, people feed off of each other to survive. Furthermore, when a human being is deprived of communication and is forced to be alone, it is an unknown experience to them. Nothing in life can prepare someone for this sick excuse of a punishment- the degree of isolation that one is expected to endure in solitary confinement is inhumane. Young people are a lot more vulnerable than adults; therefore the physical and mental effects of isolation take a greater toll on adolescents than on adults. It is not only unlawful but also implacable to place any human being, much less an adolescent, through such a ruthless form of ‘discipline’.

Global Internet Censorship

What aspects of the internet make global censorship difficult? Why might a government be inclined to impose internet censorship on its citizens? Is global internet censorship moral? Internet Censorship has been a topic of much debate and growing concern in the past decade. According to the OpenNet Initiative, the number of countries seeking to control access of content on the internet has been rising rapidly (Documenting Internet Content Filtering Worldwide n. d). Reporters Without Borders published a list of thirteen countries as ‘internet enemies’ in 2006. The list consisted of Belarus, Burma, China, Cuba, Egypt, Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Vietnam (List of the 13 Internet Enemies in 2006 Published 2006). The Chinese government has restricted internet access so heavily that it is called the ‘Great Firewall of China’ (Healy, 2007: 158). Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) also have heavy restrictions on gambling, pornography, homosexuality and anti-Islamic sites. According to the OpenNet Initiative, the four main reasons why a government imposes censorship are securing Intellectual Property (IP) rights, protecting national security, preserving cultural norms and religious value and shielding children from pornography and exploitation (Documenting Internet Content Filtering Worldwide n. d). Global censorship may not be as easy as it sounds. Many aspects of the internet make global censorship difficult. The absence of a centralized hub is one of the main reasons why global internet censorship may not be feasible. As of now only individual countries have imposed censorships through their Internet Service Providers (ISPs). The internet is extremely vast and there is no way people can be employed to check on every single content that is put up on the web. Automated checking tools are not as effective and can only filter content to some extent. The internet is a many-to-many media and people all around the world can post web pages. It is thus quite difficult for one agency or government to curb all activities on the internet that may be deemed offensive to them. Along with all its benefits the internet also brings with itself a lot of harms. Hacking, identity theft, pedophilia etc are just some of them. In September 2006, Time. com reported that Brazilian prosecutors claimed that a number of pedophiles, anti-Semites and racists lurk around the country’s most popular social networking site, Google’s orkut (Downie, A. 2006). There has been a recent uproar in Dubai, regarding orkut where some members of the public questioned why the site was not banned and that certain communities were posting immoral material. Dubai-based lawyer Abdul Hamid Al Kumity, of Al Kumity Advocates, said according to Article 15 of the UAE's cyber crime laws, people risked a jail term of between six months and three years, and a fine of up to Dh30,000, for making, constructing, exhibiting, showing, circulating, inducing or impelling people to watch a website with obscene, immoral, pornographic or erotic material. Article 15(4) puts those who publicise suc h websites for others to watch or attract people to such websites at risk of a fine or a jail term. According to Article 13, anybody who allows youngsters to access such websites or helps them in viewing them will be punished with a fine or a jail term of up to five years’ (Bardsley 2007). Thus after a huge public uproar, orkut has been blocked by the country’s most popular ISP – Etisalat. The main reasons why a government might be inclined to impose internet censorship on its citizens are to protect the regional moral values, to protect children and to protect the country. Preserving moral values of the country would include the censorship of any site deemed offensive in the context of religion, culture and relationships. Homosexuality is considered an offence in the UAE and all sites related to the topic are blocked in the region. Most dating service sites are also blocked. Anti-Islamic and Pro-Christian sites such as those preaching conversion to Christianity are also blocked by the ISPs. The second reason of protecting children would include keeping adult content from children and keeping the children safe from paedophiles. National security is the other main reason why a country would be forced to impose internet censorship. The political sentiments of a country are likely to be kept a secret by the government. On the other hand we do have countries like China whose suppression of important information has led to not only national but international problems. ‘The SARS crisis in 2004, and the contamination of the Songhua River in 2006, which affected millions of lives in China and Russia, serve as particularly deadly examples’ (New HRIC Report Details State Secrets System 2007). Terrorism is another reason. The governments of most countries are keeping a strict watch out for any material posted on the internet linking to terrorism. ‘The National Institute of Justice defines computer crime as any illegal act for which knowledge of computer technology is used to commit the offence’ (Stamatellos 2007:11). On the fifth of July 2007, three â€Å"cyber-jihadis† who used the internet to urge Muslims to wage holy war on non-believers were jailed for between six-and-a-half and ten years in the first case of its kind on Britain (Gulf News, 2007:20). The governments also censor content to protect the political sentiments of the country. In Belarus, for example, ‘in March 2006, several websites critical of President Alexandre Lukashenko mysteriously disappeared from the Internet for several days’ (List of the 13 Internet Enemies in 2006 Published 2006). Similar acts by the governments are seen in most other countries listed by the Reporters Without Borders. Governments also impose censorship so that none of its secrets are disclosed. The governments do so to control and maintain their power. People around the world, adults and teenagers alike have created virtual characters or avatars for online gaming purposes. Sites like ‘Xfire’ and games like ‘World of WarCraft’ have people from around the world addicted. These games have led to crimes in the real and virtual worlds. There was an incident of a murder in Shanghai over a virtual sword used in the online game ‘Legend of Mir 3’. When the dispute had started between the two individuals, the authorities were informed but they could not acknowledge virtual properties. In South Korea these kinds of violence and murders are so common that the police call it ‘offline PK’ which stands for offline player killing. The game ‘Lineage: The Blood Pledge’ is so popular in South Korea that the number of acts of violence aggravated by this game came to a point where the authorities had to create a special cyber-crime unit to patrol both online and offline. These interventions of the government are totally justifiable since the safety of the public is at stake. ‘Kantian ethics is the moral theory of Immanuel Kant or any theory that ncorporates some of Kant’s central claims or claims similar to Kant’s. Kant’s most basic claim is that nothing can be conceived to be good unconditionally and without qualification except a good will’ (Werhane et al. , 1998: 356). From the Kantian perspective, internet censorship is legal in the sense that the government is only protecting its citizens from possible harms an d other data that maybe be deemed sensitive or offensive as far as the religion or the governing body of that country is concerned. In the above mentioned example of setting up online communities on orkut in Dubai, most people in Dubai do not know the laws against it and they think that they are anonymous on the Internet whereas that is not the case. The government can get the IP addresses from Google server and track down the person easily. Since the main intention of the government is to protect the people, from the Kantianism point of view, internet censorship is moral. Contractarianism has been identified to have its origins from Plato’s ‘Republic’ (Sayre-McCord, 2000: 247). Social Contract Theory which is a part of contractarianism is based on rights. People have a right to information which is blocked by the government. Along with offensive sites, the governments also block sites which may be educational or useful otherwise. The government of UAE, for example, has blocked Yahoo’s web album site Flickr due to some indecent content, but most people use the site to share photographs with friends and family around the world. In addition to right to privacy internet censorship denies people their freedom of expression. According to a report by Reporters Without Borders, 52 people in China were in prison for expressing themselves too freely online at the time of publishing the report (List of the 13 Internet Enemies in 2006 Published 2006). Thus self-censorship would also be in full-force, in addition to all the other governmental censorship. From the citizen’s perspective, evaluating with the social contract theory, global internet censorship is immoral. Frey defines Act-Utilitarianism as a view that ‘an act is right if its consequences are at least as good as those of any alternative’ (2000: 165). The main advantages of global internet censorship may be protecting children from inappropriate content, protecting moral values of the general public, protecting individual countries and their political sentiments and securing IP rights. The main harms may include the fact that important information that the public deserves to know may be with held. Secondly blocking sites such as Flickr due to some explicit content may not be justified keeping in consideration the public at large because most people use it to share photos with their kith and kin around the world. Thirdly sometimes biological information may be with held because it is deemed explicit. Sometimes sites related to topics that are acceptable in some countries may be blocked because they are considered offensive in other countries. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) sites such as skype was banned by the UAE’s ISP Etisalat so that the people are forced to use their telephone for long distance calls and they would not lose out on their profits. This is also a harm in the sense that the government is denying the public of new technology for monetary benefit. Since the harms of internet censorship outweigh their benefits, internet censorship is immoral. ‘Rule-consequentialism holds that any code of rules is to be evaluated in terms of how much good could reasonably be expected to result from the code’ and good stands for whatever has non-instrumental value (Hooker, 2000:183). According to him Utilitarians are the most prominent type of consequentialists and they believe that utility is the only thing with non-instrumental value. ‘The term â€Å"rule-utilitarianism† is usually used to refer to theories that evaluate acts in terms of rules selected for their utility – i. . for their effects on social well-being’ (Hooker, 2000: 185). From the rule-utilitarian point of view, the main benefits remain the same, securing IPs, protecting political sentiments, protecting children and protecting religious and moral values. The harms, on the other hand, are violation of the public’s right to information , their right to freedom of expression, their right to decide for themselves as to what is right and what is wrong and their right to new technology. Moreover in a few years time, it is possible that people will be relying completely on the internet for news and entertainment. So the laws pertaining to newspapers should be applicable to the internet as well. Thus since the harms outweigh the benefits, global internet censorship is immoral from the Rule-Utilitarian perspective. We have seen that all countries do not filter the same content. When China filters out all pro-democracy sites, the concept is unthinkable of by most other countries. When homosexuality and same-sex marriages are acceptable in countries like UK and some states of the US, it is looked down upon by most other parts of the world. Thus filtering these content on the internet may not be accepted by all. What may be normal in some countries may be completely offensive in some other. Therefore global internet censorship is not a panacea. References Bardsley,D. , 2007. Orkut users should report offensive material. Gulf News, 4 July. p. 2. Downie, A. , 2006. Google and the Pedophiles. Time [online] 6th September, Available: http://www. time. com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1531986,00. html, [cited 4th July 2007] Frey, R. G. , 2000 ‘Act-Utilitarianism’ in The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory [e-book] ed. Lafollette, H. Blackwell Publishers, Malden Massachusetts USA, pp. 165-182 Available: http://www. etlibrary. com [cited 29th June 2007] Healy, S. , 2007. ‘The great firewall of China. (Looking at the Law)’ Social Education [online] 71(3), p 158 Available from Expanded Academic ASAP via Thomson Gale http://www. galegroup. com [cited 28th June 2007] Hooker, B. , 2000 ‘Rule Consequentialism’ in The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory [e-book] ed. Lafolle tte, H. Blackwell Publishers, Malden Massachusetts USA, pp. 183-204 Available: http://www. netlibrary. com [cited 29th June 2007] N. A, 1998 The Blackwell Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Business Ethics [e-book] ed. Werhane, P H. & Freeman R. E. Blackwell Publishers, Malden Massachusetts USA p. 356 Available: http://www. netlibrary. com [cited 29th June 2007] N. A, 2006, ‘List of the 13 Internet Enemies in 2006 Published’, Reporters without Borders [online], 7th November, Available: http://www. rsf. org/article. php3? id_article=19603 [cited 6th July 2007] N. A. , 2007, ‘New HRIC Report Details State Secrets System’ Human Rights in China [online] 12 June Available:http://hrichina. org/public/contents/press? revision%5fid=41505%5fid=41500 [cited 4th July 2007] N. A. , 2007, ‘Three jailed for using Web to wage war’ Gulf News 6 July. . 20. N. A. , n d ‘Documenting Internet Content Filtering Worldwide’ OpenNet Initiative [online] Available:http://www. opennetinitiative. org/modules. php? op=modload=Sections=index=viewarticle=1 [cited 20th June 2007] Sayre-McCord, G. , 2000 ‘Contractarianism’ in The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory [e-book] ed. Lafollette, H. Black well Publishers, Malden Massachusetts USA, pp. 247-267 Available: http://www. netlibrary. com [cited 29th June 2007] Stamatellos, G. , 2007, Computer Ethics, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Massachusetts, USA. p. 11.

The Baby Boomers Have Squandered Their Children’s Future

THE BABY BOOMERS HAVE SQUANDERED THEIR CHILDREN'S FUTURE We should protect ourselves from the self centred attitude of the elderly. A generation that have ‘pulled the ladder they climbed up after them', intending to prevent youth from attaining the merits of their own yesteryears. I am painting the picture of intergenerational fairness – a product of blame and a constant of culture designed to justify the impeding nature of society today. This vociferous claim is stifling nations as the desire to classify a diagnosis implants the division of ages through a unjustified mood.The baby boomer generation filled the hole opened by the wounded and dead, supplied a new workforce and bolstered prosperity, developing consumerist nations. A 1958 story in Life magazine declared that â€Å"kids† were a â€Å"built-in recession cure. † Whilst the thousands of men who returned infertile are denied scrutiny, despite declining fertility rates, aiding an ageing generation an d contributing a diminutive amount to society. To destroy the idyllic past is the recollection of rationing, utility clothing, national service and events such as the Vietnam war.Can dwindling resources, debt or the enevitable issues of over population really be placed on these elders' shoulders? Especially as, since October those over 65 are allowed to remain in occupations, so state reliance beforehand is free from their influence, just poor government prediction. Opposition then utter words of stunted growth. However the labour market is dynamic, not static – mature workers continue to pay taxes, fuelling the wealth that will expand employment, providing those opportunities for the young. In the UK university attendance has increased by 40%, the literacy rate is 99%, minimum wage will increase to ? . 31, we face higher life expectancy, and greater affluence as wealth is expected to double by 2050. Is this prospectus so detrimental or terminal? Since when has spending equal led squander? It merely stimulates the monetary cycle of the economy. The end of the post war economic boom, arrived from the collapse of the Bretton Woods System in 1971,the 1973 oil crisis and The Nixon shock causing the stock market crash. It is the traditional conservative government that now promotes that each generation has a moral obligation, acting as a trustee and beneficiary, moving attention towards insubstantial social issues.But western society is not expected to evaluate through ethnicity, gender or sexual orientation as it tends to distort conceptions, this can be applied to age. It is vital to consider that one single group, circumstance or historical event has ever been solely to blame. There is always a collective of responsibilities and actions, therefore to burden the baby boomer's would be naive and childish. An ideological obsession has formed causing the propagation of every single inequality and injustice between generations. A western, educated, modern socie ty judging averages, demonising the elderly rather than adapting and extending change.